Commentary on Scripture: Romans 6

What shall we say then? Are we to continue in sin so that grace may increase? May it never be! How shall we who died to sin still live in it?

Romans 6:1-2 ~~ Paul issues the authoritative smack-down of the antinomian heresy.

Romans 6:3-5 ~~ Paul speaks of the atonement and the sacraments in this passage. "Do you not know that all of us who have been baptized into Christ Jesus have been baptized into His death? Therefore we have been buried with Him through baptism into that, so that as Christ was raised from the dead through the glory of the Father, so we too might walk in the newness of life." This passage indicates that the crucial moment of atonement, the prime salvific event, is not defined by the Cross. By dying Christ triumphed over death; by living, Christ ensured the future resurrection of the body. Baptism unites us to Christ in recapitulating the Cross, but it is His Resurrection that gives us eternal life.

Romans 6:5-11 ~~ An extended meditation on the passion and death of Christ, and how that transforms our lives by enabling us to die to sin by dying and living in Him.

Romans 6:7 ~~ "For he who has died is freed from sin." This is integral to the passage as a whole, but I can't help but think of it atomistically, as an general principle unto itself. This would have pretty serious ramifications to our theology of suffering and death, though I'm not sure if I could do such ideas justice here.

Romans 6:16-19 ~~ Paul applies the metaphor of slavery both to our prior condition of sinfulness, and to our redeemed condition of sanctity. He clarifies that "I am speaking in human terms because of the weakness of your flesh." In Galatians, he contrasts between our slavery to sin and our sonship in Christ, which is a much more powerful and liberating analogy. On the other hand, that passage was primarily about the doctrine of liberty, whereas this passage seeks to counter the antinomian heresy (that advocates freedom even to sin) and therefore emphasizes our obedience.  When our heart belongs to God, all things are lawful (though not all things are profitable; cf. 1 Corinthians 10:23). When our hearts wrestle with sin, we must be very careful indeed.

Romans 6:22 ~~ It's a limited analogy, pertaining to our weakness in the flesh, but it still carries weight. "But now, having been freed from sin and enslaved to God, you derive the benefit, resulting in sanctification, and the outcome, eternal life." The verse that follows is better known, but this one's pretty spectacular as well. It should be noted that the following verse only speaks to our slavery to God (and thus, only to grace received as a free gift) rather than our sonship in Christ (and thus to the grace and glory that has become our inheritance).

For the wages of sin is death, but the free gift of God is eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord.

Commentary on Scripture: Romans 5

Therefore, having been justified by faith, we have peace with God through our Lord Jesus Christ, through whom also we have obtained our introduction by faith into this grace in which we stand; and we exult in hope of the glory of God.

Romans 5:1-2 ~~ Justification gives us "peace with God," "grace in which we stand," and "hope of the glory of God." These seem to conform to the theological distinctions of imputed righteousness (right-standing before the seat of judgment), imparted righteousness (ongoing sanctification by grace through works), and divine filiation (participation in Christ's nature and glorification as sons of God).

Romans 5:2-5 ~~ Not only do we exult in hope for glorification, but we also "exult in our tribulations" --that is, our ongoing purification -- "knowing that tribulation brings about perseverance; and perseverance [brings about] proven character; and proven character [brings about] hope; and hope does not disappoint...." Because God has already poured out His love, we can rely on Him in hope of glorification (v. 2).

Romans 5:7 ~~ This verses relies on the distinction between "righteousness" and goodness introduced in Romans 4:4-5. Righteousness arises from faith; goodness is more associated with works ("to one who works, his wage is not credited as a favor, but as what is due." This is why God's love is demonstrated in His grace to sinners, just as our obedience to the law of Moses is better encapsulated in our treatment of enemies than our treatment of neighbors (Matthew 5:44).

Romans 5:8-10 ~~ Romans 5:8 is one of the better known verses in the Pauline epistles. However, look at how Paul applies it. If God loved us so greatly  "while we were still sinners," how much more will He preserve us "having been reconciled" to Him? This passage implicitly contrasts our former status as sinners with our new status as regenerate creatures; that is, as sons of God. As such, it seems to contradict the Lutheran dictum simul justus et peccator: "both justified and a sinner."

Romans 5:10-11 ~~ "...we shall be saved by His life. But not only this, but also exulting in God through our Lord Jesus Christ, through whom we have now received the reconciliation." We can rejoice not only in our preservation from death, but also in the promise of our full sonship.

Romans 5:12-19 ~~ Here is an extended section contrasting Adam and Jesus Christ, both as moments in salvation history ("as through the one's man's disobedience the many were made sinners, even so through the obedience of the One the many will be made righteous") and as typologies ("Adam, who is a type of Him who was to come..."). The first Man, Adam, was created in the image and likeness of God. Jesus was eternally begotten of the Father and born of the immaculate Virgin, in the perfect likeness of God and therefore in the true form of Man.

Romans 5:13 ~~ This verse is an important corollary to the Romans 2:12 and 4:15 passages on the connection between human knowledge and divine judgment. "For until the Law sin was in the world, but sin is not imputed when there is no Law." We still suffered its effects of sin under the curse (e.g., "death reigned from Adam until Moses") but prior to the Law we were immune from its imputation as violation of Law.

Romans 5:14 ~~ Death is the natural consequence of sin as separation from God, not necessarily as transgression against the known will of God (i.e., sin "in the likeness of the offense of Adam"). That subordinate clause is particularly notable: "death reigned... ever over those who had not sinned in the likeness of the offense of Adam." This passage could be taken in a number of ways -- for instance, as referring to children prior to the age of accountability -- but the first implication should be clear: not all sins are equal (cf. 1 John 5:16-17).

Romans 5:15 ~~ A typological contrast between Adam's rebellion ("by the transgresison of the one, the many died") and Christ's obedience ("the gift by the grace of the one Man... abound to many"). This is repeated in Romans 5:18-19.

Romans 5:16 ~~ "On the one hand the judgment arose from one transgression resulting in condemnation, but on the other hand the free gift arose from many transgressions resulting in justification."

Romans 5:20-21 ~~ God gave us the Law to increase transgression (purpose implied by the conjunction "so that"). But this increase in transgression corresponds to a parallel abundance in grace. "As sin reigned in death, even so grace would reign through righteousness to eternal life through Jesus Christ our Lord."

The bulk of Romans 5 is Christological, particularly with reference to the Adamic typology. (That last sentence might be a mouthful, but it was also really fun to say!) The initial verses are a continuation of the Romans 4 passage on justification. Even so, these verses seem to emphasize the hope of glorification over the initial moment of conversion, the realization of justification, or the ongoing work of sanctification (though the hope of glory is framed in the context of tribulation and purification). The latter verses focus much more particularly on the work of Christ in the context of His prefiguration and antithesis, Adam. Paul reserves his fiery denunciation of the antinomian heresy for the beginning of Romans 6, but in these verses he seems quite close to the Augustinian notion of felix culpa. This teaching may be best understood in the words of the Exsultet of the Easter Vigil: "O happy fault, that gained for us so great a Redeemer."

O certe necessárium Adæ peccátum,
quod Christi morte delétum est!
O felix culpa,
quæ talem ac tantum méruit habére Redemptórem!

Commentary on Scripture: Romans 4

Do we then nullify the Law through faith? May it never be!  On the contrary, we establish the Law.

Romans 4:1-22 ~~ A long digression on the nature of Abraham's righteousness (with particular reference to Genesis 15:6), similar in content to Galatians 3:6-7, as well as Hebrews 11:8-19, though in sharp contrast with the text of James 2:21-24. Two brief thoughts on the passage as a whole. First, having established justification "by faith apart from the works of the Law," Paul is strongly interested in rooting this doctrine in the very soil of the Law itself.  Second, the contrast between Romans and James should remind us to avoid atomistic interpretations of Scripture. We are often tempted in exegesis to trim the infallible Tree, to prune away difficult passages and to graft more accessible doctrines onto those now-barren limbs. If anything, let us dive head-first into paradox, so we might understand the insight captured in these inspired texts.

Romans 4:2 ~~ "If Abraham was justified by works, he has something to boast about, but not before God." There can be no pride in our own salvation, for we were not the cause of it, and indeed could do nothing prior to the divine initiative of grace.

Romans 4:4-5 ~~ "Now to the one who works, his wage is not credited, as a favor, but as what is due." Salvation, taken as the initial moment of justification, is not 'due' in any sense to us. However, the passage does indicate that the wages of works are indeed credited as our "due," even as the rewards of faith are credited as righteousness.

Romans 4:6-8 ~~ Righteousness (blessedness) is for the forgiven sinner. This quote in particular serves as a Scriptural basis for Luther's maxim "simul iustus et peccator" (both justified and sinner), and does seem to point towards the later Protestant concept of 'imputed righteousness.'

Romans 4:9-12 ~~ Abraham was deemed righteous prior to his circumcision, in accordance with his faith. Therefore, Paul reasons, righteousness cannot be exclusive to circumcision, if only because such an understanding would disqualify Abraham.

Romans 4:11 ~~ "...the sign of circumcision, a seal of the righteousness of the faith which he had while uncircumcised...." Both circumcision and baptism, its typological counterpart in the New Covenant, may be seen as seals of righteousness from the moment of conversion. However, failure to affirm the covenant by obedience -- circumcision, the sacrifice of Isaac (cf. James 2:21), the Law, the sacrament of baptism -- would invalidate the original covenantal relationship.

Romans 4:14 ~~ "If those who are of the Law are heirs, faith is made void and the promise is nullified" (cf. Galatians 3:17). Those who receive the Law are neither exclusively nor assuredly heirs in the family of God (cf. Romans 2:13, Galatians 3:29).

Romans 4:15 ~~ "The Law brings about wrath, but where there is no law, there also is no violation." This may well be cited as one of the more notorious and difficult anti-legalistic passages in the Pauline epistles, as well as a startlingly strong confirmation of the principle of judgment according to knowledge (though again, balance with Romans 2:15) . Paul maintains that the Law (greater revelation) entails wrath and judgment, for it reveals our state of sinfulness, and may even exacerbate actual sin by acting as a proximate cause on our rebellious natures.

Romans 4:17-18 ~~ These verses are fairly difficult. My NASB translation reads: "God, who gives life to the dead and calls into being that which does not exist," but marks in footnotes that the original literal read goes: "God, who gives life to the dead and calls the things who do not exist as existing." In one sense, this is decidedly a reference to the risen Christ (as well as his typological forbear, Isaac). It also hearkens to the doctrine of creation ex nihilo, perhaps even in the Aristotelian sense of God as "unmoved mover" or "first cause" (as developed by Thomas Aquinas). We shouldn't forget that Paul, in addition to his apostolic office and divine inspiration, was also something of a genius.

Romans 4:19-21 ~~ The life of faith is one that contemplates the obstacles and doubts of this world (e.g., Abraham's frailty and Sarah's infertility) without growing weak or wavering in reliance upon God. Faith enables strength and thanksgiving. Paul correlates our faithful reliance on God with our hopeful assurance in His promises and His power to perform them).

Romans 4:25 ~~ Jesus "was delivered over because of our transgressions, and was raised because of our justification." This verse seems have been taken from an early Christian confessional or doxology. I find this verse particularly interesting, because it treats the Resurrection (not the crucifixion) as the primary salvific event for our justification. This seems to correlate more closely with a Catholic/Orthodox understanding of "infused" or "imparted" righteousness, as well their teachings regarding the sacrament of baptism, which may almost been treated as a vicarious 're-enactment' of Christ's death and resurrection.

I've recently done some reading on the Anglican bishop and theologian N.T. Wright, who is one of the major theological movers of the "New Perspectives on Paul." This lecture summarizes some of the "central issues" that are foundational to his exegetical framework. While I lack the education or exegetical experience to sit in judgment over his works, I find Wright's contributions to be quite impressive, both in balancing the excesses of certain doctrines and in drawing us into a fuller understanding of the Scriptural text. His summary of 'justification' (which concludes the lecture) has been especially valuable in reading Romans.  What's more, Wright's arguments strike me as largely unoriginal -- which, in my book, is an unmitigated good. If no one in the past two millennia had thought of this interpretive gloss, that would be much more cause for concern than if such a reading were rooted in arguments from the orthodox tradition.

Commentary on Scripture: Romans 3

But he is a Jew who is one inwardly; and circumcision is that which is of the heart, by the Spirit, not by the letter; and his praise is not from men, but from God.

Romans 3:1-2 ~~ If indeed, as Romans 2 suggests, we are judged according to our knowledge of God, why then seek to know more of God?  "What advantage has the Jew? ...Great in every respect!  First of all, that they were entrusted with the oracles of God." To be privileged with the Presence and grace of God is to be blessed, even if there are greater responsibilities that attend such gifts.  Paul discusses the other benefits of special revelation in Romans 9, particularly verses 4-5.

Romans 3:3-8 ~~ Paul lists a series of paradoxes.  If God demonstrated His "faithfulness" to us by the gift of special revelation, why do some not believe? If error proves the existence of truth, and "our unrighteousness demonstrates the righteousness of God," why is sin wrong?  How could God judge the world if His attributes are demonstrated by both the good and the bad that we do?  Why are we worthy of judgment if "through my lie the truth of God abounded to His glory"?

Romans 3:7-9 ~~ Paul asks, quite logically, why we ought not commit ourselves to the antinomian heresy.  Why oughtn't we "continue in sin, that grace may abound" (Romans 6:1)?  Paul condemns this heresy, but asks the more pertinent question for those who are not so mistaken: "Are we better than they?  Not at all; for we have already charged that both Jews and Greeks are all under sin."  There's an interesting side note on this, as well as the ideas of predestination and divine judgment found in Luke 22:22. Speaking of Judas, Jesus says to His disciples: "For indeed, the Son of Man is going as it has been determined, but woe to that man by whom He is betrayed!"

Romans 3:10-18 ~~ A series of quotes from the Old Testament emphasizing the universality of sin and judgment.  These quotes are taken from the Psalms -- 5:9, 10:7, 14:1-3, 36:1, 53:1-3, and 140:3 -- as well as Isaiah 59:7.  It's easy to forget, however, that these quotes all speak of man in his native or "natural" state, absent the intervention and grace of God. In verse 10, Paul quotes Psalms 14:1-3 -- "There is none righteous, not even one" -- but in chapter 4:3 he quotes Genesis 15:6 -- "Abraham believed God, and it was credited to him as righteousness." Likewise, by the revelation of God there are some who understand; by the imago dei there are some who seek for God; by the faithfulness of God not all have fallen away; by the sanctifying grace of God there are some who do good.

Romans 3:19-20 ~~ The Law was given to the Jews but was of no benefit for the justification of their souls, for the Law only reveals sin but cannot take it away (Romans 8:5, Galatians 3:21).

Romans 3:23-24 ~~ This is one of the "classic" verses often memorized by kids who grow up in the Christian Church.  It is less appreciated as another example of Paul's astounding command of rhetoric. This is quite possibly the purest example of a transitional sentence.  Paul summarizes the doctrine of the universality of sin, and introduces the doctrine of justification by faith, in a single smooth turn of a phrase.

Romans 3:27 ~~ "What then is boasting?  It is excluded.  By what kind of law?  Of works?  No, but by a law of faith." By what standard could we boast, but by a standard (of total reliance and dependence on God) that forbids boasting?

Romans 3:29-30 ~~ The unity of God is revealed by His just treatment of Jews and Gentiles: for both are justified in proportion to their faith in Him, without regard to the advantages of special privileges of knowledge.

Romans 3:31 ~~ The doctrine of justification by faith and the doctrine of Christian liberty (cf. Romans 7 and Galatians 3) do not "nullify the Law," but are together indeed the cornerstone of the Law -- the foundational understanding on which our reading of the Law must be based.

It is easy to rip Romans 3 out of the context of the surrounding passages and chapters, and treat it as a solitary affirmation of justification by faith. However, that context is always necessary. Justification by faith is the warm milk of our salvation -- necessary in infancy, but almost beneath our notice in our spiritual maturity. It must be balanced with understanding the rest of the message of Scripture, especially in this context the doctrine of of judgment according to knowledge (Romans 2), of inheritance according to works (James 2), of Christian liberty (Galatians 3), and most especially of divine filiation (Galatians 4). For we are justified by faith apart from works, but are sanctified and glorified according to the judgment of words and deeds, according to how greatly we reflect the glory of God, for we are by the blood of Christ heirs of the promise and sons of God.

Commentary on Scripture: Romans 2

"Therefore, you have no excuse, everyone of you who passes judgment, for in that which you judge another, you condemn yourself; for you who judge practice the same things."

Romans 2:1 ~~ One of the great rhetorical reversals in the Bible, alongside Ephesians 5:25 and Amos 2:6. It is too easy to proof-text verses out of self-righteousness, to apply a verse to disparage another. While judgment is necessary for moral living, I've found it to be a useful principle to treat God's Word as first and foremost an address to each person individually. When a passage is addressed to wives, it shouldn't be read by husbands; nor should a passage to children be read by fathers; nor should a passage against the Gentiles be read by Jews.  Of course there is a time and a place for reading such things, but doing so requires more maturity and discernment than I'm comfortable assuming I ordinarily possess.

Romans 2:3-4 ~~ Interestingly, this verse against judging others sheds some light on the grace of God that calls us to salvation. Paul wonders whether his audience sinned "not knowing that the kindness of God leads you to repentance." I understand that hellfire sermons (such as Jonathan Edwards' archetypal "Sinners at the Hands of an Angry God") may be effective evangelical tools for others, and while I've never found them useful myself I'm not willing to reject or repudiate them simply out of personal prejudice (I have the same response to Pascal's Wager).  However, it is vital to understand that mercy and grace underlie the heart of God's message and underlie the movement of our own hearts towards him.  Moreover, I find it interesting that this verse virtually conflates God's judgment with His kindness, tolerance, and patience, when most people would contrast the two.

Romans 2:6 ~~ God "will render to each person according to his deeds." This is a direct quote from Psalms 62:12 and Proverbs 24:12. It was also cited by Jesus Himself in Matthew 16:27.  The theme that we will inherit according to works recurs throughout the New Testament. Paul would return to the subject in Romans 14:12, 1 Corinthians 2:13, 2 Corinthians 5:10, Ephesians 6:8, and Colossians 3:25. John the Seer repeats those same words of Christ in Revelations 2:23, and the theme reappears at the end of his apocalypse, in Revelations 20:12 and 22:12. Finally, of course, the apostle James has a whole homily on faith and works in the context of salvation in the second chapter of his epistle. Protestant Christians tend to shy away from this theme, thanks to the whole "faith v. works" dispute with Catholicism, but the major theme is restated by so many leaders of the early church that it can't and shouldn't be ignored.

Romans 2:7-8 ~~ Those who persevere in doing good, seeking "glory and honor and immortality" will be rewarded with eternal life; those who persist in selfish ambition and disobedience will receive wrath and indignation.  It seems that the decision to pursue God -- however much or little we see of Him -- is made by faith operating through God's grace.  However, the consequences of that pursuit, whether in wrath or in glorification, will be determined by the degree of our obedience and virtue -- that is, by works.  The distinction between justification (to be made just, right with God) and sanctification (to be made holy, one with God) is in this passage crucial.

Romans 2:9-11 ~~ I find it slightly ironic and more-than-slightly challenging that, after establishing so central a distinction between Jews and Greek, in the context of both wrath and glory, Paul states that "there is no partiality with God." God's impartiality is somewhat foreign to our modern ears, conditioned by sweeping statements of human equality in courts of law. "From everyone who has been given much, much will be required..." (Luke 12:48).

Romans 2:12 ~~ Here is a crucial (and oft-overlooked) verse on justification and salvation.  "For all who have sinned without the Law will also perish without the Law, and all who have sinned under the law will be judged by the Law." We are judged according to our deeds, but in light of the impartiality of God, we are judged also according to the degree of knowledge of Him we possess in our hearts. Those who only know Him by general revelation will be judged by a far lower and far gentler standard than those who have received "the oracles of God" (Romans 3:1) directly, and even that will be less severe than the judgment incurred by those who are charged with teaching the Word to others (James 3:1).  Judgment is in accordance with the knowledge in our hearts.

Romans 2:14-16 ~~ These verses speak of a possibility of salvation for Gentiles who do not know the Law, and given that it speaks of them "doing instinctively the things of the Law," we can presume it refers to Gentiles who also have not yet received the Gospel.  I've written on the subject before (here), but it bears repeating: I believe it is possible for someone who has not heard of Jesus Christ to be saved.  Because they already have received the law (the Word) on their hearts, and Jesus is the fullness and fulfillment of that law (the Word made flesh), if they maintain their obedience and desire for that Word (if by God's grace they persevere in doing good, cf. 2:7), that obedience and desire is honored by God despite their lack of knowledge.

Romans 2:17-18 ~~ Those who receive the Law are confident in their ability to be a "guide to the blind" (to those who are unable to see or walk by themselves), a "light to those in darkness" (those who can walk, but are unable to see much at all), a "corrector to the foolish" (those who can both see and walk, but do both poorly), and a "teacher to the infants" (those who can see, but are unable to walk far at all).

Romans 2:17-24 ~~ Here, again, the principle of 2:12 is applied to the Jew.  Those who receive God's Word in its fullness will be judged by the fullness of His Word. Therefore the Jew is condemned by the Law.

Romans 2:27-29 ~~ The righteousness of the Gentiles (who lack such immediate knowledge of God) put the average (sinful) Jew to shame.  It is better to follow God's commands in light of our Christian liberty (the end of our slavery to sin, cf. Galatians 5:1) than to obey the Law without such consciousness.

The principle of judgment according to deeds and according to knowledge is a difficult one, and its difficulty is compounded by contrast with the classic Pauline (and Protestant) emphasis on justification by faith.  Nevertheless, these principles are compatible and mutually necessary for a full understanding of the Divine Economy (God's grace and His works among us), and thus I find it necessary to revisit and seek clarity in the midst of these confusing doctrines.

Commentary on Scripture: James

James, a bond-servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ, to the twelve tribes who are dispersed abroad: Greetings.

James 1:2-4 ~~ "Consider it all joy... when you encounter various trials, knowing that the testing of your faith produces endurance. And let endurance have its perfect result, that you may be perfect and complete, lacking in nothing." In these verses, we are supposed to find joy in endurance, which is rather paradoxical (patience is waiting with hope; endurance is waiting without hope but only trust). The reason joy resides in endurance is because endurance contributes to our perfection. The purpose of the "testing" of our faith is our own perfection. This fits with one of the major themes of James: namely, after we are justified by faith through grace, we are restored (Romans 8:30 "glorified") by works and deeds.

James 1:5-6 ~~ Wisdom is a gift from God, freely given to those with faith. Restoration and perfection follow after salvation and justification.

James 1: 9-10 ~~ Notwithstanding the commands against pride, we are supposed to take pride in our spiritual condition: the pauper ought to take pride in his trials, while the rich man takes pride in his future humiliation that will reveal the omnipotence of God.

James 1:12 ~~ "For once he has been approved, he will receive the crown of life...." Salvation (justification) precedes and allows room for glorification.

James 1:13-14 ~~ God does not tempt us to evil; temptation arises from the excess of our lusts or passions.

James 1:15 ~~ "Lust" gives birth to sin, which when brought to fruition produces death (see also Romans 5:13-14 on the types of sin).

James 1:16 ~~ "Do not be deceived." This remark (even if taken in context) provides a positive command to seek not only virtue (good deeds) but truth (good words). This is perhaps why James later transitions from "faith without works is dead" to "if anyone does not stumble in what he says, he is a perfect man."

James 1:17 ~~ This remark provides solid Scriptural support for the Augustinian teachings on the ontology of evil. "Every good thing given and every perfect gift is from above, coming down from the Father of lights." God is entirely good; nothing can exist outside God. Thus, evil must exist outside God, and therefore cannot have independent existence. Evil is the negation or corruption of the good.

James 1:18 ~~ Humans are the "first fruits among His creatures," just as Christ was the "firstborn of Nature." This leads me to wonder if perhaps God's gift to us extend to animals; that is, if we are able to extend the common grace of our nature to animals just as Christ extended the special grace of His mercy to us. Perhaps our tendency to anthropomorphic perception of domesticated animals (like cats and dogs) is in fact rooted in a change in the animals themselves through domestication and contact with humans. C.S. Lewis has some good content on this in "That Hideous Strength."

James 1:19 ~~ "Quick to hear, slow to speak"; this verse seems to indicate that the silence of contemplation is a necessity of Christian life.

James 1:19-20 ~~ "Slow to anger, for the anger of man does not achieve the righteousness of God"; this verse states that our 'righteous indignation' cannot achieve the intensity or purity of God's wrath, and therefore ought to be employed sparingly, if at all.

James 1:21 ~~ "All filthiness and all that remains of wickedness" (this contrasts degrees of sin: corruption versus depravity). "The word implanted, which is able to save your souls" (there is a native or common grade for goodness, rooted in the imago dei or "image of God.")

James 1:23-24 ~~ If we hear the Word without acting upon it, we are like the person who sees his true self in a mirror yet forgets it. Please note: to hear the Word is to see our true selves.

James 1:25 ~~ "The perfect law, the law of liberty"; this is the main theme of the Letter to the Galatians.

James 1:26 ~~ Religion is worthless if it does not bridle our tongue or lends clarity to our self-perception. This verse is also interesting in that it correlates a failure to control our speech with a self-deceit in our heart.

James 1:27 ~~ Pure and undefiled religion is to lead a life of charity, compassion, and moral purity. James' emphasis on "works" is not purely external, expressed in acts of charity, though that is a major focus.

James 2:1-9 ~~ We as Christians are not to show favoritism. However, the only application James gives is to avoid showing favoritism to the rich over the poor. yet James goes on to say that God shows favoritism by exalting the poor and humbling the rich. But this seems to be God's prerogative, as in verses 8-9 James states that any partiality we show violates the "royal law" (that is, the Greatest Commandment, to "love thy neighbor as thyself." This is no "preferential option for the poor" in terms of social justice (see also 5:7-11). James merely makes the point that while all favoritism is wrong, favoritism on behalf of the rich is especially so.

James 2:9-11 ~~ one violation of the Law constitutes sufficient proof to define us as transgressors of the Law. This may be taken as a general point, though it is noteworthy that the only examples cited of the Law are excerpts from the Ten Commandments and the Greatest Commandment, which may weaken his point.

James 2:12-13 ~~ Within the context of the law of liberty, judgment is exercised according to merit and deed, by extending mercy to those who were merciful, etc.

James 2:14 ~~ This is a key verse for James, and in the debates between faith and works (which seems to be one of the key disagreements between Protestants and Catholics). Yet it is worth noting that this verse, which supports a strong emphasis on works, occurs within the "law of liberty," which is extended by grace. Thus, grace places us under a law of liberty, in which works confirm our salvation and determine our blessings and glorification.

James 2:19-20 ~~ Merely to believe in God, and in the Shema (the Hebrew declaration of the unity of God, found in Deuteronomy 6:4 - "Hear, O Israel, the Lord is God, the Lord is One"), is insufficient, for even the demons recognized the unity of God. Our belief must take the form of faith, which must be perfected in works of love.

James 2:21-23 ~~ Do these verses teach justification by works? No, only perfection by works. This is a posterior action to justification (see Romans 8:30). In this sense, James speaks of the Scriptures as being fulfilled when it spoke of Abraham's faith before it was confirmed and perfected by the sacrifice of Isaac.

James 2:26 ~~ Just as body is to spirit, so faith is to works. My philosophical training makes me wonder if there might be a third term, namely "body is to spirit :: faith is to works :: matter is to form."

James 2:26-3:1 ~~ This seems a very abrupt transition (see also 5:1). The rest of the letter flows smoothly because thoughts, even when those themes and points seem only distantly related. Yet, in light of 1:16, it may be that James considers good speech (and correct thought, i.e. "orthodoxy") to be a component of good works.

James 3:1 ~~ Teachers will incurs stricter knowledge than others, for their knowledge is greater and they have responsibility not only for the care of their own soul but also others. Romans 2:11-16 contain an expanded doctrine of salvation, that we are judged and condemned (and blessed) based on the degree of knowledge we possess, which is corroborated by this verse. We ought not to forget James 5:19-20 which reveal the greater blessing awaiting the teachers who admirably perform their responsibilities and preserve the souls under their care.

James 3:2 ~~ Here is a corollary to all those remarks about living the Christian life in word and deed: words are in fact the more challenging of the two!

James 3:3-8 ~~ This passage on the dangers of the tongue is fairly well known. Consider this in light of the verses that follow, however. (The tongue is a powerful instrument, able to affect our minds, the way we think.)

James 3:9-13 ~~ The tongue is able to bless or curse, and ought not be both. Just as good deeds manifest true wisdom, good words manifest a true heart. (The tongue manifests our minds and the dispositions of our hearts).

James 3:13-14 ~~ Contention, strife, jealousy, and ambition are signs of earthly or demonic "wisdom." When I first read this, I found it fascinating that the Bible seems to accept the existence of a wisdom that is not only not from God but also is antagonistic to Him, which seems to conflict with the message of Proverbs ("the fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom"). I'm still not sure what to make of this, though it is entirely possible that James was merely using the word "wisdom" to describe a pretender to the throne, a shoddy counterfeit that masquerades as wisdom but whose effects reveal it to be otherwise.

James 3:17 ~~ The sequencing here is interesting. "The wisdom from above is first pure" (unalloyed by error) and only then revealed by the virtues of speech. This verse also reveals a guide to noble rhetoric. To articulate the good in a pure and uncompromising way yet also have it received, the Christian must be: "peaceable, gentle, reasonable, full of mercy and good fruits, unwavering, [and] without hypocrisy." This deserves a lot more analysis, but I'll leave it there for now.

James 4:1-3 ~~ Dissension and conflict originate from the passions of the flesh, and therefore do not arise from Godly or virtuous motivations. This seems to be consistent with James' appraisal of anger in 1:20, though the general argument that all conflict is a sign of ungodliness or evil is more challenging, not least because of James' own depiction of Godly wisdom as "unwavering."

James 4:4-5 ~~ the Spirit of God made to dwell within us cannot coexist a spirit of "friendship with the world."

James 4:7-10 ~~ This is a fascinating list of commands. "Submit to God": most of the other commandments are conditional or purposive, while this one is unconditional, unequivocal, and uncompromising. This is the foundation of everything else. "Resist the devil, and he will flee from you": this begins the sequence of 'do this, so that...' statements. It is also parallel to "Draw near to God, and He will draw near to you." In both, faith and endurance are rewarded. "Cleanse your hands, you sinners": this first type of sin lies in action, in deed, in transgression. "Purify your hearts, you doubled-minded": this is the second form of sin, which resides in thought, in heart and soul. Verse 9 is the exception, and I will treat it below. "Humble yourselves in the presence of the Lord, and he will exalt you." This last point is the end to which the first command ("submit to God") is directed. We submit and have faith that we might be saved; we humble ourselves and act on that faith that we might be exalted.

James 4:9 ~~ This is the exception to the list of commands, and a strongly paradoxical statement that seems to conflict with the very idea of exaltation (v. 10) and the joy we find in the Presence of God. Consider these words in prayer: "Be miserable and mourn and weep; let your laughter be turned into mourning and your joy to gloom." My instinct is to root this in the personality of Saturn, in the character of the suffering Christ (which makes intuitive sense given Christ's ultimate victory over death and the turn to exaltation in verse 10). But I'm not sure if that is entirely satisfactory.

James 4:11-12 ~~ The criticism of the brethren or of the church by believing Christians is a failure of humility. I think this is a vitally important message for a lot of Christians today who seek to define themselves and their faith in opposition to the established Church.

James 4:13-16 ~~ The confidence we hold in the future or in our own worldly success is likewise a failure of humility, and a sign of our arrogance. To consider the future with an certainty is akin to boasting, and as such is evil. To affix "God willing" to every statement may be archaic, but it would be a useful reminder to us.

James 4:17 ~~ This, with 5:1, provides a very abrupt transition into the final section. By itself, it also provides a doctrine of sins of omission (best known through the immortal words of Ogden Nash): "To one who knows the good and does not do it, to him it is sin." This incidentally dovetails nicely with Romans 2:11-16.

James 5:1-6 ~~ These verses strongly condemn the rich, the powerful, and the corrupt elites. It is interesting to note that the condemnation is phrased in a rather mocking way oriented around eschatology: "It is in the last days that you have stored up your treasure!"

James 5:6-11 ~~ These verses strongly exhort the poor to patience and endurance without complaint (conflicts and jealousy are treated and disparaged in 3:14 and 4:1). James also draws parallels to Job and the prophets. This is very emphatically not the doctrine taught by advocates of "liberation theology" and the "preferential option for the poor," nor is it consistent with the radical movement of Marxism or communism. The church ought to push to better treatment of the poor, but within the context of its own action. The church's role should not be stirring up the poor in revolt, since this preys on their existing passions and lusts. The greatest moral development lies in the areas of our lives that are the most challenging to us: for the poor who suffer, this often means learning to suffer with patience. This is a challenging message, and not a message that ought to be delivered by those who do not also suffer, but it is a healthy message consonant with the thrust of Scripture. I would interpret Ephesians 5 in the same manner.

James 5:12 ~~ Christians are called to be trustworthy, which is a very challenging command since our reputations often do not lie within our control.

James 5:13 ~~ Suffering is met with supplication, good cheer met with thanksgiving to God.

James 5:14-16 ~~ These statements actually form a fascinating doctrine of prayer, including teachings on purpose and efficiency. Also, it is interesting that we are to confess our sins to others, and pray for the spiritual health of others, for the same object: that we ourselves may be healed.

James 5:16-18 ~~ Here is a fascinating statement, that I lack time to explore: "The effective prayer of the righteous man can accomplish much." Note that it doesn't say it can accomplish everything, nor does it define what is meant by "effective" prayer. But the example of Elijah (see 1 Kings 17:1,18:41-46).

James 5:19-20 ~~ A necessary corollary to James 3:1. Teachers will be held to a higher standard than others, but if they meet that standards and acquit themselves well of the souls in their care, they will receive great blessing.

James 5:20 ~~ An odd and abrupt end to a letter marked with abrupt rhetorical transitions. This seems less to be a letter in the mold of Paul (with the multitude of greetings and blessings at the end) and more in like with Luke (with the greetings to "Theophilus" at the beginning but little content at the end. Perhaps this was because the letters by James and Luke were general letters to the church, meant for a wide audience, and extra content at the end would merely distract from the message, whereas Paul wrote his letters to specific audiences and thus found that personalized greetings would enhance the audiences' receptivity to the message.



The grace of salvation and joy of glorification rest upon you.

Commentary on Scripture: Galatians

Paul, an apostle... to the churches of Galatia: Grace to you and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.

Galatians 1:1 ~~ Paul immediately establishes his pastoral authority, as sent from God and not from men. He adopts a very different rhetorical strategy than in Philemon, where he seeks to establish personal rapport and disclaims any demands on his own authority.

Galatians 1:3-5 ~~ Paul launches into a doxology that immediately establishes a positive doctrine of atonement, and also introduces a major theme of the letter.

Galatians 1:6-9 ~~ Paul makes a strong and broad-based assertion of his doctrinal authority, and the importance of true doctrine in matters essential for faith.

Galatians 1:6-7 ~~ "Different gospel... distort the gospel." This equivalence supports a broad thesis that error is not independent of truth, but is its corruption or distortion.

Galatians 1:10 ~~ This verse reveals Paul's rhetorical strategy for the beginning of the letter. He appeals to his very abruptness and bombastic tone to show that his apostolic authority is not from men, nor is meant to please men, and that he eschews smooth or apparently persuasive speech because his authority is from God (see vv. 11-12, in which he makes this claim explicate).

Galatians 1:11-12 ~~ Divine revelation was the source of Paul's authority.

Galatians 1:13-2:21 ~~ Paul gives a history of his controversy with the Judaizing sect of Christianity, from Paul as a Pharisee, to his early years as an apostle in the Syrian churches, to the Jerusalem Council and finally concluding with his public dispute with the apostle Peter before the Antioch church.

Galatians 1:13-15 ~~ Paul avoided the Jerusalem church and apostles to avoid conflict and avoid compromising his divinely-appointed authority.

Galatians 1:14 ~~ Paul puts his advanced knowledge and zealousness for Judaic law to good use later in this letter (see Gal. 3:6-18).

Galatians 1:15 ~~ "Set me apart even from my mother's womb...." Is this a reference to Paul's family, such as any brothers or cousins who were also trained Pharisees? Or does Paul simply mean his his Jewish kinsmen?

Galatians 1:17-20 ~~ Paul didn't interact with anyone in the Jerusalem church except for James and Peter until the church report in Jerusalem 14 years after his conversion.

Galatians 2:2-4 ~~ Paul went up to Jerusalem for a report and for resolution of the circumcision controversy (Acts 15). Here it states that "it was because of a revelation that I went up," though he also notes other reasons given in 2:4 ("false brethren secretly brought in, who had sneaked in to spy out our liberty"). The sequence of events is particularly interesting. It appears that Paul first appeared privately before the Jerusalem Council and "submitted to them the gospel which I preached among the Gentiles," presenting his case to the elders before the church report and the public controversy stirred up by the Pharisaical sects, thus influencing the final resolution given by James and the other elders of the Council.

Galatians 2:4-5 ~~ The Judaizers sought to put Gentiles (who had just gained their freedom in Christ, see 5:1) back into bondage. Paul made no compromise to the converts' Christian freedom.

Galatians 2:6-10 ~~ Paul offers a bittersweet evaluation of his reception in Jerusalem, that those with authority and reputation "contributed nothing to me," those they "gave to me and Barnabas the right hand of fellowship."

Galatians 2:8 ~~ Peter ministered to the circumcised, Paul ministered to the Gentiles. How is this verse (and others related to the leadership structure of the early church, see Acts 15) consistent with the unilateral authority claimed by the Papal See in the Roman Catholic Church?

Galatians 2:10 ~~ Paul states that the Antioch Christians were only "asked... to remember the poor," whereas Luke records a list of four mandates in Acts 15:20.

Galatians 2:11-13 ~~ Paul is quite critical in his evaluation of Cephas (Peter). Peter had participated with the Gentile Christians when he first arrived in Antioch, but had withdrawn into the more strict Judaic community when representatives from James in the Jerusalem church had visited. He was "fearing the party of the circumcision" -- presumably, Peter was trying to preserve his credibility from attack by the more radical Jewish sects. This might have been a prudential move (avoiding unnecessary conflict) if it were not for the broader repercussions, for "the rest of the Jews joined him in hypocrisy," even Paul's associate Barnabas. Peter's acts may have helped his outreach to the Jews, but had also given offense to the Gentile Christians. By his actions, Peter had caused a rift in the church between Jewish and Gentile Christians.

Galatians 2:14 ~~ Paul confronts Peter directly and begins with a public rebuke. This strikes me possibly as imprudent as Peter's actions, for it may have escalated the crisis and made this letter necessary long after the Antioch controversy.

Galatians 2:16 ~~ This verse is central to the theology of Martin Luther, as it offers a thrice-repeated doctrine of justification by faith and not by the works of the Law.

Galatians 2:17-19 ~~ "if... we ourselves are found to be sinners" -- that is, judged to be sinners, knowledge of which comes from the Law -- we prove ourselves to be transgressors by judging ourselves according to the Law and not according to our liberty in Christ Jesus! Paul seems to state that over-reliance and concern for the actions of Christian living can in fact be sinful when it conflicts with our understanding of our freedom to live by faith in the Spirit.

Galatians 2:21 ~~ if righteousness is from the Law, then Christ's sacrifice was needless and without effect.

Galatians 3:2-5 ~~ Paul harshly criticizes the Galatians' turn from the Spirit (grace) to flesh (works of Law).

Galatians 3:6-14 ~~ Paul embarks on a defense of the doctrines of liberty and faith, drawing from the Law itself. He uses a similar strategy in the section after 4:21.

Galatians 3:6-7 ~~ This verse (Gen. 15:6) is often quoted in the New Testament, and developed in more depth in Romans 4 and Hebrews 11. The sons of Abraham are defined by their faith accredited as righteousness

Galatians 3:8-9 ~~ This verse emphasizes the universal outreach of the Gospel, since the nations would be blessed through Abraham. Also, note the distinction drawn between the "sons of Abraham" and those "blessed with Abraham."

Galatians 3:10 ~~ Those who rely on the works of the Law are cursed under the Law (see 3:13), since they can never abide by all of the requirements.

Galatians 3:11-12 ~~ Paul contrasts living by faith (righteousness) with living by the Law (accursedness).

Galatians 3:16 ~~ Paul's Pharisaical training comes through here, in his familiarity with the Scriptures. He argues from the grammatical structure of the Abrahamic covenant (in particular, the fact that the "seed" of Abraham is in the singular) to show that it is fulfilled not in the Jewish people but in the person of Christ.

Galatians 3:17-18 ~~ This is perhaps the crucial point in Paul's argument: the Abrahamic covenant (the promise given to the patriarch) precedes the Mosaic covenant (the works of the Law given on Mount Sinai). Therefore the Law does not and cannot supersede the promise and the liberty that is fulfilled in Christ.

Galatians 3:19 ~~ The purpose of the Law was to mediate between God and sinful man before the Abrahamic promise had been fulfilled in Christ (see 3:23). While the covenant is given directly, the Law was given indirectly, "ordained by angels" (as per Deuteronomy 33:2, but also referenced in Acts 7:38,53 and Hebrews 2:2) "by the agency of a mediator" (presumably Moses), and passed ultimately to the Jewish people. The concept that the Law was transmitted or even ordained by angels would put a new spin on the entire reading of the Torah, and would certainly diminish its authority compared to the Abrahamic promise received directly from God.

Galatians 3:21-22 ~~ The Law is not contrary to the Abrahamic promise; it serves to point out sin, even while it is powerless to redeem us from sin. However, "the Scripture has shut up everyone under sin" seems to imply (as in Romans 7) that the Law also functions to be corrupted by sin, proving the existence of our sin insofar as it can even corrupt the commandments of God, and showing us the necessity of confession and repentance.

Galatians 3:23-24 ~~ Before Christ, we were in "custody under the Law" like children under the watchful eye of a "tutor" (a slave attendant). As children, we were kept from our adult inheritance and blessings ("being shut up to the faith which was later to be revealed"). Like Jacob and the Prodigal Son, we sometimes demand a blessing which is not yet time for us to receive.

Galatians 3:28 ~~ The unity of the body of Christ is an oft-repeated sentiment in the Pauline epistles; this verse is repeated verbatim in several other locations.

Galatians 4:1 ~~ In light of 3:23-26, which considers our custody as children under slaves, Galatians 4 begins by comparing our status as children to that of slaves. This was common to Hellenistic culture (cf. Aristotle's Politics, Book 1).

Galatians 4:3 ~~ As children (future heirs) we were held in bondage to the "elemental things" or "principles of the world (the Law, implied by 4:10).

Galatians 4:8-10 ~~ before knowing God, we sought for God in those things which were not Him. But now, after faith has taken hold, it would be sin to return to the "weak and worthless principles" of the Law. Desire to be enslaved by the Law is fundamentally anti-Christian (Gal. 5:1 - "It was for freedom that Christ set us free").

Galatians 4:10 ~~ "days and months and seasons and years" probably refers to the liturgical calendar of the Hebrew traditions and the Law.

Galatians 4:11 ~~ "I fear for you, that perhaps I have labored over you in vain." Through the letter, Paul drops his more bombastic tone, and towards the end begins to reveal his insecurities about his apostolic leadership for the Galatians. Similar sentiments are echoed in 4:20 and 5:7.

Galatians 4:12 ~~ Here's a paradoxical statement: "become as I am, for I also have become as you are."

Galatians 4:12-15 ~~ Paul states that the Galatians who received this letter initially heard the Gospel because of an unspecified weakness or illness. This may imply a detour in the first missionary journey recorded in Acts 13, or possibly an unrecorded detour in the second journey (Acts 16; but see Acts 16:6-8 where the Holy Spirit prevents them from spreading the Gospel in Bythinia and northern Galatia) or even the third journey (Acts 18:23) though the date of the journey and this letter would be an issue. Whatever the history, the Galatians evidently did not despise Paul for only teaching them the Gospel as a result of illness, but viewed it as an act of Providence. Yet now, having overcome such adverse conditions to receive the Gospel, the Galatians begin to reject Paul's teachings for relative trivialities.

Galatians 4:17-18 ~~ The Judaizers seek the Gentile Christians not commendably (as apostolic authority) but to reinforce their own religious authority ("shut you out" from the Christian community by the works of the Law, "so that you will seek them" for permission to be brought back within the community of grace.

Galatians 4:20 ~~ This is a counterpart to 4:11 and 5:7. Paul is so overcome by fear and worry that he desires to be present, to act or do something, to even "change my tone" if it would help the Galatians find their way back. Paul is perplexed, especially in light of the question in 4:21.

Galatians 4:21-28 ~~ Paul gently mocks the inconsistency of the Galatian's reliance on the Law, for the Law itself, beginning with the Abrahamic covenant and the division between Sarah and Hagar points towards freedom from the Law (that is, the "promise"). The current Jerusalem (i.e., the Judaic Law) is in slavery, where the new Jerusalem offers freedom (see Isaiah 54:1 and Revelations 21:2).

Galatians 4:29-31 ~~ The allegory of Hagar and Sarah is followed by the allegory of Ishmael and Isaac, that those in slavery (Judaizers) seek to persecute and bind those who enjoy freedom (believers of the promise).

Galatians 5:1 ~~ "It was for freedom that Christ set us free"; I love this verse.

Galatians 5:2-4 ~~ In the context, accepting circumcision from the Judaizers would be a mortal sin for the Galatians, for it would be testimony of the insufficiency of Christ's atonement (v. 4).

Galatians 5:4-5 ~~ Paul contrasts those who seek justification by law (active pursuit of actual restoration by definite means) to those who wait for the hope of righteousness by faith through the Spirit (passive acceptance of potential restoration by imprecise or uncertain means).

Galatians 5:6 ~~ Circumcision is meaningless compared to "faith working through love."

Galatians 5:8 ~~ Paul flatly states that the Judaizers (or whoever preaches justification by works of the Law) are not from Christ.

Galatians 5:9 ~~ This seems to be something of a non sequitur, regarding the pervasive influence of Judaizers.

Galatians 5:11 ~~ As in 1:10, Paul ironically points out the ease by which he could concede to the Judaizers, to avoid the persecution of these heterodox sects. But he is unwilling to abolish the "stumbling block of the cross" (a similar phrase is used in Rom. 9:33 and 1 Cor. 1:23).

Galatians 5:12 ~~ There are two possible readings of this verse. It might be an uncharacteristically bitter and vengeful outburst at the Judaizers (as in, "they should go mutilate themselves!") or it might be a particularly pointed attack (as in, "circumcision for the Gentiles would be akin to castration for the Jews; you first!") Either way, this is an extraordinary verse.

Galatians 5:13 ~~ Here is the summary statement of Galatians: "You were called to freedom, brethren."

Galatians 5:13-14 ~~ With these verses, Paul turns from defending the doctrine of Christian liberty to exhorting and encouraging its proper use -- for Christian fellowship, service, and love.

Galatians 5:15 ~~ Paul warns against the critical attitude embodied by the Law, saying how it might be turned against you by your enemy.

Galatians 5:16-17 ~~ To walk by the Spirit is to "crucify the passions and desires of the flesh" (5:24).

Galatians 5:19-21 ~~ "Deeds of the flesh" (list of vices), emphasizing works and actions. "Deeds" (plural) also implies variety.

Galatians 5:22-23 ~~ "Fruit of the Spirit" (list of virtues), emphasizing habits and traits. "Fruit" (singular) also implies unity.

Galatians 5:23 ~~ For such quality of virtue "there is no law" (see also 5:18, "If you are led by the Spirit you are not under the Law"). These virtues are sufficient without any requirement for action, for they will be imbued in every deed done by the person possessing such virtue.

Galatians 5:25-26 ~~ Here is a summary statement of the habits of vice, rooted in a rejection of hierarchy. We ought to avoid a spirit of boasting(when above), a spirit of cutthroat competitiveness (when beside), and a spirit of envy (when below).

Galatians 6:1-8 ~~ Paul outlines a doctrine of Christian unity and fellowship, considered in relief with individual moral responsibility. Paul seems to relish the sheer quantity of paradoxes in this section.

Galatians 6:1 ~~ We are to forgive and restore those who sin gently (to preserve their soul) and carefully (to preserve our own).

Galatians 6:2 ~~ Paul begins by outlining the duty for bear the loads of others (the law of Christian charity), before declaring that we can only bear our own loads when we come before judgment (v. 4-5).

Galatians 6:3-4 ~~ Another paradox: we are to take pride in our own work, insofar as we approach Christ, even while we are deceived if we think ourselves to be more than nothing.

Galatians 6:6 ~~ Another paradox, or else a non sequitur: we must bear others' loads (for charity), but can only bear our own loads (for judgment), but must "share all good things" with those who teach the word or instruct us in goodness (implying a duty to provide for teachers and evangelists).

Galatians 6:7-9 ~~ "Whatever a man sows, this he will also reap." Redemption and restoration are tied to Spirit and grace, but inheritance of the blessing is directly linked to works of faith.

Galatians 6:11 ~~ Paul takes the pen in hand, and laughs at the contrast between his handwriting and the fine meticulous penmanship of a scribe.

Galatians 6:12-13 ~~ The Judaizers advocate circumcision not as a doctrine truth, but to stave off persecution and boost conversion rates among Jewish audiences. These are largely political considerations, which Paul considers hypocritical and lacking consideration for the Gentile believers. On the other hand, by practicing circumcision, early Christianity could be associated with Jewish rites that were protected by and from Roman interference.

Galatians 6:15-16 ~~ The works of the Law and differences under the Law are meaningless in light of the restoration of the whole Creation by the cross (see also 5:6).

Galatians 6:17 ~~ Paul concludes with a personal appeal for doctrinal peace and for recognition of his authority in light of his suffering condition (perhaps alluding to his "illness" from 4:13, or "thorn in the flesh" from 2 Cor. 12:7).

The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you spirit, brethren. Amen.

Contemplations in Theology: #13

Salvation is possible for those who do not know the name of Jesus Christ.

I am no Univeralist. There are certain definite truths, and there is only one path that leads to God: namely, the person of Jesus Christ. But it is worthwhile to ask: who is on that path? What do we mean when we speak of ourselves as 'followers' of Jesus Christ?

Most orthodox Christians rely on the relatively simple answer of Romans 10:9: "That if you confess with your mouth Jesus as Lord, and believe in your heart that God raised Him from the dead, you will be saved." Those who submit themselves to Him are "being justified as a gift by His grace through the redemption which is in Christ Jesus" (Romans 6:24). Faith in Christ is the defining trait of the Christian doctrine of salvation.

But the simple answer does not fully satisfy, for it leaves several questions unresolved.

Before or after the Incarnation, there have been perhaps billions of people who live their lives in ignorance of the Gospel. What is the fate of the multitude who never heard the name of Christ?

In The Abolition of Man, C.S. Lewis wrote of the concept of the "Tao" as a universal ideal, common to Plato, Aristotle, the Stoics, the Eastern mystics, and the Christians. "It is the doctrine of objective value, the belief that certain attitudes really are true and others really are false, to the kind of thing the universe is and the kind of things we are." This is at the heart of my point.

There is a universal conception of the True, the Good, and the Beautiful which every person possesses simply by virtue of being a human being created in the image of God.

Plato argued that we derive our standards for value-judgments from Forms; we can speak of things as "good" because we have experienced the Form of the Good. Christianity associates these Forms, and especially the Form of the Good, with God. Therefore, this takes our argument a step further.

Our knowledge and desire of the True, Good, and Beautiful is in fact the very essence of our humanity, and at the very heart of our identity as human beings created in the image of God. I would argue that the imago dei is precisely this desire for the true, good, and beautiful -- in other words, our rational, moral, and aesthetic capacities.

John 1:1 states: "In the beginning was the Word." This is a vital truth about Jesus Christ. It states: Jesus Christ may be "the Word made flesh," but when we confess the name of Jesus Christ, we are fundamentally confessing "the Word [as] God." But what is this "Word" (Gk Logos)? Is it not the Tao described by Lewis, or the "Forms" seen by Plato? Could we not say, in fact, that the Word is the ultimate manifestation of the True, Good, and Beautiful?

We are created in the image of God. We are born with a desire for these noble ideals; that is, with a desire for the Word. Human religiosity is thus driven by our common human need to sate the desire for these perfections. As Christians, we believe the satisfaction of that desire lies in knowledge of our personal and provident God. What's more, there is an even deeper satisfaction in knowledge of the Word made flesh, the person of Jesus Christ.

But for those who do not even know the name of Christ, how can they sate this desire? For those who know neither the transcendence of God the Father nor the immanence of God the Son, where are they to turn?

If special revelation fails, or if it is simply not available, could general revelation suffice?

Romans 2:11-16 suggests it would.

"For all who have sinned without the Law will also perish without the Law, and all who sinned under the law will be judged by the Law; for it is not the hearers of the Law who are just before God, but the doers of the Law will be justified. For when Gentiles who do not have the Law do instinctively the things of the Law, these, not having the Law, are a law to themselves in that they show the work of the Law written in their hearts, their conscience bearing witness and their thoughts alternately accusing or else defending them, on the day when, according to my gospel, God will judge the secrets of men through Christ Jesus."

A similar point was made by Thomas a Kempis in The Imitation of Christ: "The more you know and the better you understand, the more severely will you be judged, unless your life is also the more holy."

These passages assert that we are judged and our salvation determined according to our degree of knowledge. As Jews were judged by their adherence to the Law, we as Christians are judged by our faith in Christ as the Word made flesh. But just as the Gentiles without knowledge of the Law were judged by the standards of conscience and reason, so too are those without knowledge of Christ judged by their desire for the Word.

I do not believe in salvation outside of Christ. I merely wish to argue that those who are ignorant of the Word made flesh can still be saved by their adherence to the Word.

Indeed, on the day of judgment when each of us is brought before the great white throne, those who have lived their lives in pursuit of the Word will see its incarnation before their eyes. If they have truly sought Christ when they could only perceive Him through a glass darkly, then their souls will leap at the chance to see face to face.

Some may argue that this doctrine diminishes the importance of "the Word made flesh" and of special revelation. I say, with Paul in Romans 3:1-3, not at all. "Then what advantage has the Jew? Or what is the benefit of circumcision? Great in every respect. First of all, that they were entrusted with the oracles of God." As Christians, we can enjoy intimately a relationship with God--we can in fact experience the good, the true, and the beautiful--when those without Christ seek such blessing from afar. We can see with clarity what others can only see shrouded in shadow.

We are held to a higher standard than others, for we have witnessed the power of the Presence of God. After all, the more fully we enter the Beatific Vision, the more we can see of the face of God, the more we ought to love and desire Him.

This should be profoundly disconcerting: the holier we are, the holier we are expected to become. Yet here lies the fear of the Lord, and the beginning of wisdom.

Before I close this note, I want to take a complicated and probably controversial detour. This argument I have outlined need not be limited to those who do not know of Christianity at all. What of those who know only a little, or whose knowledge is mixed with error?

We are imperfect vessels bearing the name of a perfect God. It should not surprise us, then, if our lives and sins prove to be distracting from the Gospel that we preach. But what can we say if those who have ears to hear are unable to hear, because of the deafening sins of the Christian?

What are we to say to the altar-boy who rejects Christianity because he associates the Church with the pedophile priest, with grotesque sins and abuses of authority? Are we prepared to say that he is damned for taking that stand? If he thought that this sinful priest was representative of the Christian faith, he would distance himself from that faith, even if he possessed a pure desire for the Word.

What are we to say to those natives of Africa and America who only knew Christianity in the context of imperialism, racism, and death? Indeed, here is a terrifying possibility: what if their rejection of Christianity was indeed an act of virtue? For it could not be praiseworthy to love a God of violence and hatred, and if that is all they knew the Christian God to be, then it might have been a deed performed by a gentle and loving heart to reject such a message. In this scenario, could we not say that they were closer to the kingdom of God, precisely because of their rejection of the Gospel?

Even if the error is entirely the fault of misperception, and is not the fault of any Christian's sin or moral failing, the point remain. If you are entirely motivated by desire for the Word, and you are confronted with a faith that seems to conflict with the ideals you seek, would you not reject it?

At the end of The Last Battle, C.S. Lewis places a Calormene soldier in the midst of the "real Narnia" with the company of true followers of Aslan. When this soldier first encounters the "great Lion,"

I fell at His feet and thought, "Surely this is the hour of death, for the Lion (who is worthy of all honor) will know that I have served Tash [the pagan god] and not Him. Nevertheless, it is better to see the lion and die, than to be kind of the world and live and not have seen Him. But the Glorious One bent down and touched my forehead with his tongue and said, 'Son, thou are welcome.' But I said, 'Alas, Lord, I am no son of Thine but a servant of Tash.' He answered, 'Child, all the service thou has done to Tash, I account as service done to me." Then by reason of my great desire for wisdom and understanding, I overcame my fear and questioned the Glorious One and said, "Lord is it true, as the Ape [the false prophet] said, the thou and Tash are one?" The Lion growled so that the earth shook (but his wrath was not against me) and said, "It is false. Not because he and I are one, but because we are opposites, I take to me the services that thous hast done to him, for I and he are of such different kinds that no service which is vile can be done to me, and none which is not vile can be done to him. Therefore if any man do a cruelty in my name, than though he says the name Aslan, it is Tash whom he serves and by Tash his deed accepted. Dost Thou understand child?" I said, "Lord, Thou knowest how much I understand." But I also said (for the truth constrained me), "Yet I have been seeking Tash all my days." "Beloved" said the Glorious One, "unless thy desire had been for me thou wouldst not have sought so long and so truly, for all find what they truly seek."

I do not believe that all people will be saved. I do not believe that all ways lead to heaven. I do not believe that we should be content to let error remain. But I cannot believe that errors of mind disqualify the yearnings of our hearts and souls, not when God sees every one of us in our inmost being.

And that is why I assert, with some trepidation, that salvation is possible even for those who do not believe in the Christian faith.

Contemplations in Theology: #3

Christians are often stereotyped these days. Christianity itself is stereotyped. Yet of all the caricatures, I believe there is one that is the most corrupting, the most harmful and perverse, and it is one shared by Christian and non-Christian alike. It is our stereotype of heaven.

How long must we suffer the delusion that heaven is a land of kindly-faced angels and soft puffy clouds? Leaving the question of angels aside for later, I must ask, from where did we find this image of an ethereal Paradise? Certainly not from the Book of Revelation, for St. John did not see us living as airy immortals in an immaterial land. Rather, he saw "a new heaven and a new earth, for the first heaven and the first earth passed away..." (Rev. 21:1).

We have retained something of the Manichean heresy, from the days of early Christianity. It was defeated in orthodox theology by St. Augustine, yet it endured. The Manichees taught that spirit was good and matter was evil, that the soul was trapped in a prison of corrupting flesh. Therefore, their idea of salvation was in the release of man from its human bondage, in the redemption of spirit from the slavery of substance, in the ascension to a purely ethereal life.

This is our doctrine of heaven taken to the extreme, and I maintain that it is fatal to Christian faith. We need look no further than Genesis to find that it took both "dust from the ground" and "the breath of life" from our Creator before the Scriptures declared "and man became a living being." Both elements--matter and spirit--were present from the Creation, and both elements were good. Salvation does not require that man abandon his body; only that he abandon his previous life of sin.

Man is both spiritual and material. There will be a new Heaven and a new Earth.

Paradise is not something totally beyond our experience; it is the fulfillment of our original nature, in the blessing of God's presence and perfection. This assertion is vital to my theology. Christianity does not ask us to renounce our humanity, but to fulfill it. Heaven is not a cosmic bribe, created as a special gift to those in whom God delights. It is the necessary outcome of the Promise, for God had given man dominon over the Creation; after the Fall, God meant to redeem man and restore him to his place over a restored Nature. Just as God promised Abraham that through him (and the Jewish people) all the nations would be blessed, so God had promised Adam that through him (and the human race) all of Creation would be blessed.

Our misconception of heaven is fundamentally a misconception of the human person.

Here is another startling argument, for those (such as myself) accustomed to the Protestant assertion of human sinfulness. Man is originally good. Man was created in innocence, in the image of God, and man has retained that intrinsic goodness and virtue. The Fall was a corruption of the original, but it did not and could not destroy it. Salvation does not replace, but restores. It brings the individual human back to his original place, in worship of God, in fellowship with man, and in stewardship of Nature.

Do we realize what it means when we say that Christ was fully God and fully Man?

I find the early cinematic depictions of Jesus Christ almost comical, in that they treat him as utterly different than any man. He is aloof, almost dispassionate; as loving and gentle as Mr. Rogers, certainly, but not human. The Scriptures present Him in a totally different light. He is weakened by hunger before being tempted by the Devil, he gets exasperated with ignorance of his disciples, he shows a sense of humor in puns (as when he renamed the dimwitted Simon "the rock"--Peter), and he rages against the religious hypocrites of his day. The famous "shortest verse" (John 11:35: "Jesus wept") could be more accurately translated "Jesus broke down and cried like a girl." Scripture records that in Gethsemane, his tears were like drops of blood: this is a real physiological symptom of extreme stress, in which the capillaries behind the eyes burst and seep into the tear ducts. His cry to God in Gethsemane to "take this cup away from me" was a real one, from a man who knew the torture that awaited him. Jesus Christ was not only God; he was more fully human than any human we could know.

This is our inheritance. We are children of His image, of His beauty, of His might. We are the sons of a King; we are the sons of God.

A final word, not about heaven but about the angels. I really wonder how we ever came to this traditional concept of the heavenly creatures, as patient and gentle creatures, much like kindly old nannies but with wings and flaming swords. This is utterly inconsistent with Scripture. In nearly every instance of an angelic visitation recorded in the Bible, the unlucky witness is either struck dumb in terror or must be dissuaded from awestruck worship. Ask yourselves, how many times were the angels obliged to say "do not be afraid" to the patriarchs and prophets? Did they ever tire from it, or did they appreciate the easy audience, like a bad stand-up comic appreciates an indulging crowd?

In Exodus 33, Moses was only allowed to see God with His back turned away (a direct glance would have killed him), yet even after another forty days and nights his face was still lit up like a Christmas tree, and all who saw him feared to approach. Angels live eternally in the direct presence of God. They are the messengers of God; they reflect His awesome power, His timeless glory. These are not meek and mild creatures, nor would we find their gazes comforting. Only when we have come to our inheritance as sons of God will we find ourselves able to return their gaze. Only when we too reflect fully the glory of the King can we endure the reflection of that majesty from others.